Last summer i was sometimes excused from very hot field work, to the relative cool of the barn, to wrestle with writing a briefing paper regarding smaller scaled agroecological agriculture, and the part it might play in a post Brexit farming and food production.
Some folks have expressed an interest in reading the results.
I'm putting it out here in several parts due to the publishing limits of this format.
I'm putting it out here in several parts due to the publishing limits of this format.
And because otherwise it makes for rather dense reading..
Its not designed to be entertaining, but is hopefully readable and informative.
Aimed at a policy maker, or person broadly interested and active in ensuring that a more than adequate food supplies continues to be available in the UK.
This work represents a collaboration between myself , Elise Wach, and Jane Sweetman, and many others - some of whose works have been referenced, but others perhaps not enough -
No one, for instance, ever seems to reference the soil biology upon whom we all depend -
So Hey!! Thanks little guys...
Agroecology is all about cooperation, and collaboration, the synergies that arise between the producer, and the land, the wider ecosystems, the people doing the work, and the people consuming the end results.
If we are to stand a chance of feeding ourselves well, into the future, but also leave a livable, and convivial planet for those to come, we must start to think and act differently, around enjoying our food.
With appreciation to Erik Millstone, Clare Ferguson, Santiago Ripoll and Chris Smaje for their feedback.
This work represents a collaboration between myself , Elise Wach, and Jane Sweetman, and many others - some of whose works have been referenced, but others perhaps not enough -
No one, for instance, ever seems to reference the soil biology upon whom we all depend -
So Hey!! Thanks little guys...
Agroecology is all about cooperation, and collaboration, the synergies that arise between the producer, and the land, the wider ecosystems, the people doing the work, and the people consuming the end results.
If we are to stand a chance of feeding ourselves well, into the future, but also leave a livable, and convivial planet for those to come, we must start to think and act differently, around enjoying our food.
With appreciation to Erik Millstone, Clare Ferguson, Santiago Ripoll and Chris Smaje for their feedback.
Contents
Introduction
British consumers are in need of healthy foods,
given high and rising rates of diet-related diseases, food poverty and
malnutrition. At the same time,
degradation of British soils, pollution of water and drastic declines of
pollinators and birds require urgent changes in how land is used. Change is needed in farming and food policy
and practice in Britain. Brexit could
make the need for change even more urgent, while also providing an opportunity
to address it.
A departure of the UK from the European Union (EU)
would mean a change to imports and exports, and also a change in agricultural,
land use and food policies which have previously been decided at the EU level. Reliance on the EU for our current high
levels of imports of fresh fruit and vegetables, or for trade in other
agricultural goods such as chicken carcasses,[1]
is likely to be less viable than currently, though this partly depends on what
kind of ‘deal’ the UK might receive from the EU.[2]
The Agriculture Bill, and Defra’s Health and
Harmony Policy Statement and White Paper indicate that there will be a
separation between support for environmental outcomes and support for farm
economic productivity. It is assumed that
this will lead to ecological food production.
However, this approach runs a risk that conservation will be pitted
against food production, perhaps even more so than at present. It may also exacerbate attrition rates in
farming, leaving food production either to highly consolidated farms, or to
other countries. In this scenario, it is
possible that farming may cause the same more environmental damage, and that
access to healthy food would decrease in Britain.
Instead, what is urgently needed is an
integration of food production with ecology.
Agroecology, an approach to farming and food
systems, has the potential to contribute to addressing food and agriculture needs
in a way that integrates ecology, food and nutrition, rural communities and
economies. With high yield potentials, agroecology
has demonstrated its potential to meet the food needs of Britain while also
enhancing, rather than depleting, our ecosystem. As it provides meaningful employment, and numerous
employment opportunities per area of land, it also shows promise of
revitalising rural communities and ensuring that our food sector does not
disappear with an end to the availability of migrant workers.
At present, agroecology is extremely under-supported
by UK government policies and partly as a result, is under practiced. However, during this time of transition, increasing
support for agroecological practices in the UK would contribute to enhancing
the UK’s food security. The recent DEFRA
Health and Harmony White Paper indicating that Defra “will support the industry
to adapt to a new world: one which will yield greater economic benefits and
improved environmental, biodiversity and animal health outcomes.”[1]
While the White paper and Policy Statement have indicated much needed support for the environment, they
have done little to support an agroecological approach. Defra’s lack of a focus on food production,
and lack of support for sustainable food production and consumption, is likely
to reinforce a dichotomisation of farming in Britain between pioneers in
agroecology on the one hand and a large majority trapped in unsustainable
intensive production. Agroecological
farming can produce food sustainably and meet ecological needs while supporting
improved economies. This briefing
explains how Defra policy could practically support this important and
promising approach to enhancing UK food security.
The first section of this briefing provides an
overview of what distinguishes agroecology, including its principles and
benefits. Next, the paper provides an
overview of agroecology as it is practiced in the UK, given the available
data. The briefing then highlights some
important barriers that currently prevent agroecology from being more widely
practiced, and how the UK government could better support agroecology, in the
context of Brexit.
This briefing is based in part on the findings from
the Transitions to Agroecological
Food Systems project, in which the authors, a mix of farmers and
academics, participated. The England-based
part of the project included farmer-led participatory action research which
incorporated a wide range of research, consultations with diverse stakeholders,
and in-depth deliberative processes from 2016 to 2018.[3]
What
is Agroecology?
The term ‘agroecology’ is relatively new and its
usage and interpretations have developed as a growing number of practitioners
and academics engage with the concept and practices. Agroecology first began as ‘ecology as
applied to agriculture’ [2] with a focus primarily on farm-based techniques. While some proponents continue to focus
narrowly onto on-farm issues (e.g.[3]), others have extended their understanding of
agroecology to incorporate the social context and the consumption of food [4]. This
shift towards considering agroecology as ‘the ecology of food systems’ “…expands
our thinking beyond production practices and immediate environmental impacts at
the field and farm level.” (Ibid p 99)
One principle of agroecology is that it is
context-dependent; what works on one field or farm might not work on another: experimentation
and context-specific approaches are required to respond to unique ecologies,
even within a given farm. This
contradicts a uniform ‘top-down’ approach to agriculture and food systems which
currently predominates in policies (e.g. the promotion of specific crops,
techniques and products across large swathes of farmers and for all consumers). Being context-dependent, rather than fixed
and rigid, the interpretations of agroecology are somewhat fluid, with
different interpretations across regions of the world, where societies frame
priorities for agriculture in different ways [5]; [6]. There is
no certification scheme for agroecology as there is for say, organic
agriculture.
However, there are broad principles which are
generally accepted across contexts. In
terms of the ecological side of the concept, the core principles include:
·
‘Recycling nutrients and energy
on the farm, rather than introducing external inputs;
·
Enhancing soil organic matter and
soil biological activity;
·
Diversifying plant species and
genetic resources in agroecosystems over time and space; and
·
Integrating crops and livestock
and optimizing interactions and productivity of the total farming system, rather
than the yields of individual species’ [7]
Agroecology, when considered in its ‘food system’
definition, also has an emphasis on producing healthy foods that support societies
[4].
In the England-based research on Transitions to
Agroecological Food Systems, a panel of ecological farmers understood agroecology
to encompass a system of farming and food production that takes account of its
effects on the wider ecologies and society as a whole. During this two year process, farmers
defined agroecology as a system of farming and producing, which places great
emphasis on producing healthy food, and other products, in a way that is
sustainable in the long term, with positive ecological and social outcomes,
both locally and in the wider world at centre front in terms of importance. This included farmer livelihoods,
communities surrounding farms and gardens (e.g. enabling thriving rural
communities rather than depopulated ones), the ‘consumer’ (or, later on in the
research, ‘food citizen’) base, the contributions towards health and nutrition
of foods which are produced and processed, and ecology on and off farms.3
This emphasis on healthy food production differs
from our current mainstream food system, which is not oriented towards food,
but rather towards commodities. These
commodities are produced in a way which does not maintain the resource base on
which their production depends, but rather ‘externalises’ the degradation of
resources. Agroecological approaches
seek to reorient farming towards the production of healthy foods, while simultaneously
ensuring that the way that these foods are produced supports communities,
livelihoods and ecologies.
The
England-based deliberative panel determined that in order to realise an agroecological
food system, there would need to be some re-localising of British food systems,
utilising shorter supply chains, to create greater transparency, better returns
for producers, fewer food miles and more ‘food citizens’ who are aware of, and
engaged with, where their food comes from and how it is produced The panel also recognised that international
trade is appropriate in many cases – agroecology is not a call for isolationism or
nationalism. This perspective coincides
with the Land Workers’ Alliance’s values-based approach to agriculture, which
emphasises the social and ecological outputs of a farm alongside financial
viability and yield.[4]
Are small farms agroecological?
While
small-scale farming is sometime equated with agroecology, small scale farms
do not necessarily practice agroecology.
Many smallholders significantly rely on pesticides and inorganic
fertilisers, or concentrated animal feed, whereas agroecological farms
actively attempt to minimise such inputs.
Further, many small farms in England produce commodity crops for industrially
processed foods and animal feed, whereas agro-ecological production focuses
on producing diverse healthy foods.
While
many agroecological farms tend to be smaller in hectarage (with many
agroecological horticulture operations less than 1 hectare), some large farms
do practice agroecology, for example by cultivating biodiversity and/or sustainably
grazing livestock. Tablehurst and Plaw
Hatch biodynamic farms in East Sussex, for example, occupies upwards of 300
hectares of land.[8]
|
The
state of play, and why agroecology is needed
a.
The
effects of and trends in our current food system
The
current food system in the UK is unsustainable and dysfunctional ecologically
and socially. Despite a recent shift in
the focus of EU and UK governments from production incentives to so-called ‘agri-environment
schemes’, the ecologies and landscapes of Britain are deteriorating. This is already well documented. Changes in pesticide usage have resulted in a
sixfold increase in potential kill of honeybees from 1990 to 2015. [9] Pollinator, bird and other wildlife
populations have declined dramatically [10]; water is contaminated with high
levels of nitrates and other diffuse pollutants from farms [11] [12]
cropping
patterns are increasing the severity of flood impacts,[13] and soils are degrading at alarming
rates.[14]
Research
has indicated that biodiversity depends on the ecosystem health of the entire
land matrix: thus, conservation areas in themselves will not be able to
adequately protect biodiversity if the land between them is a hostile habitat
for life.[15]
Wildflower margins are of little use if they are contaminated with pesticides
[16] and hedgerows
and pockets of woodland will be insufficient if between them exist Concentrated
Animal Feeding Operations, monoculture fields and/or urban environments.
Food
poverty and the numbers of people affected by diet-related diseases are high
and rising, leading to premature deaths and high costs for the NHS.[17, 18]
A recent study indicated that households in the UK are consuming large
amounts (up to 50.4% of dietary energy) of ultra-processed foods, for which the
commodity crops were produced.[19]
Currently,
80 percent of adults and 95.5 percent of young people[5] in
Britain consumes less than half of the recommended daily intake of vegetables
and fruits, based on the Eatwell Guide recommendation of 7 portions per day.[20]
The Food Foundation estimated that the UK relies on imports for all or
part of the year for 40 out of the top 43 fruits and vegetables currently
purchased,[6] and of
these imports, 75% come from the EU.[21]
There is an opportunity, and arguably a need, even in the absence of
Brexit, to address this gap between consumption and imports by agroecologically
improving domestic production of these essential foods. A ‘no deal’ Brexit would make this even more urgent
if access declines to imports and prices increase for fruit and vegetables
coming to the UK.
The
health and environmental effects of the current food system in Britain have enormous
economic consequences. A study conducted
by the Sustainable Food Trust estimated that the annual costs to the UK from
intensive farming approaches, including soil degradation, pollution and
biodiversity loss amount to £60 billion, with another £45 billion in health
costs related to poor diets (£23 billion for type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular
disease and diet-related cancers; £17 billion in malnutrition; £3.95 billion
for obesity, £1 billion for hypertension).[22]
Those ecological and health costs, while not exhaustive, dwarf the annual
£3.6 billion spent on farm subsidies.
b.
The
structure of our food system
Britain’s
food system is primarily oriented towards food as commodity – the economic
value of food is a primary concern, above its contribution to human health and
the necessity of producing food in ecologically sound ways that contribute to
thriving rural communities.
In
recent years, Defra has supported farm consolidation, justified by economies of
scale and competitiveness.[23] The majority of farms sell into long
supply chains, where small numbers of large traders, processors and retailers hold
sway in terms of price setting, production standards and indeed produce
available. With a large share of the
food economy ‘captured’ by these intermediaries, the overall effect of these
intermediaries is to ‘extract’ value from the food chain. The value extracted is often not just
financial but also nutritional. They
typically transform cheap and plentiful agricultural products into relatively
scarce and expensive processed commodities, capturing the value added when it
is sold at relatively high prices to consumers.
Primary
producers in this model have to accept low prices and are locked in to
producing small numbers of products at large volumes, and at low unit cost. For example, in the intensive poultry farming
sector, Cargill sells businesses the feed for chickens, owns the hatcheries,
the feed mill and the factories and also buys the chickens.[24]
This makes ‘farmers’ into price takers for both inputs and outputs,
restricts their autonomy and creates a strong dependence on large
businesses. It also limits the number of
products produced and traded, inevitably reducing the resilience of the prevailing
food system to shocks such as price volatility and extreme weather events, as
has been demonstrated during recent food price crises.
Large
amounts of waste are created at many stages along the food chain, either
through ‘outgrades’ or spoilage. Overpackaging and overprocessing is often linked
the distances and times over which produce has to travel. Nutrition, freshness,
provenance, consumer sovereignty, are also diminished at multiple points
throughout industrial food chains.
Due
to the low returns for agricultural commodities many farmers have left the
business or have retired without successors.
This trend is particularly strong in England. Eurostat figures indicate that the number of
farms in England fell by 48% from 2005 to 2013.
Wales saw a decline by 32%, Northern Ireland a decline by 9%, though in
Scotland the number of farms increased by 21%.[25]
In England, attrition in farming has been most dramatic amongst small
and medium sized holdings: the number of farms under 20ha declined by 85%
between 2000 and 2013, from 63,270 to 9,860 farms. Similar sized farms in Scotland, Northern
Ireland and Wales have not seen such abrupt declines,[26] indicating that these high rates of
attrition are largely related to domestic policies, rather than an inevitable
result of global market trends.
In
an attempt to stay on their farmland, many farmers have diversified into other
businesses, which are not directly related to farming, such as camping, wind
energy or simply keeping their land clear of ‘dense scrub’ in order to receive
subsidies.[27]
While diversity in itself is not negative, decreasing incentives to produce
food increases the country’s reliance on potentially-unreliable imports. This is important in the context of Brexit,
because a ‘hard-Brexit’ or a ‘no-deal Brexit’ would probably result not only in
increasing prices for imported foods, but prices could also become increasingly
volatile.
Some
farmers avoid producing through economies of scale by focusing on niche markets
for their survival. This can include
producing high-end products, such as specialty meats, salads, ‘superfoods’ or
certifying organic for higher prices.
While many—though not all—niche farmers produce in agroecological ways,
their customers tend to be confined to a small, typically wealthy group of
people. These markets obviously have
size limits.
Not only does a dependence
on niche markets exclude the majority of consumers, it also is precarious and
limited for farmers.
In short, the majority of UK farmland is
either used to produce intensively for global commodity markets, or is used for
extensive farming, which is less damaging for the environment but does not
produce much food. A small number of
farmers produce for exclusive niche markets.
However, what is needed—and what is possible—is farming that produces
healthy, affordable and accessible food for all in the UK in ways that restore
the ecosystems on which we depend.
Agroecological farming can provide that integrated set of outcomes.
[1]
The trade in chicken carcasses was one of the NFU’s concerns expressed in its
response to the House of Commons inquiry on Brexit, food and trade in 2017.
[2][2]
For a recent analysis, see Giles and Barker ‘The five scenarios for Brexit
Britain’ in the Financial Times, 11 July 2018 https://www.ft.com/content/555e6078-844b-11e8-a29d-73e3d454535d
[3]
More on the Transitions to Sustainable Food Systems project can be found at https://www.ids.ac.uk/project/transitions-to-agroecological-food-systems
[4]
The Land Workers’ Alliance refers to these farms as ‘small farms’, though does
not define them based on land area or number of workers.
[5]
Young people 11 to 16 years of age
[6]
This statistic is based on market share, though this has limitations as it does
not reflect portions
Part two here
Part two here
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